LITHUANIAN ROOTS

An Overview of Lithuanian Traditional Culture

Edited by Rytis Ambrazevicius

(C) Copyright Lithuanian Folk Culture Center, 1996

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LITHUANIAN ROOTS

An Overview of Lithuanian Traditional Culture

	Like most peoples, Lithuanians are proud of their roots and traditions. Several historic and geographic factors contributed to the sedentary life of the Baltic tribes living in Lithuania during the first millennium which was characterized by the migration of nations. Lithuanians were the last pagan people in Europe, accepting Christianity only in the 14th century. As a result, the ethnic foundation of Lithuanian traditional culture remained quite homogenous, quite a few ancient cultural relicts still survive among today's traditions. Due to common origins and frequent contacts, our culture bears some resemblance to those of neighboring peoples' especially the Latvians and Eastern Slavs. Unquestionably, Christianity had a significant impact on Lithuanian traditions. Western influence was spread through Lithuania by the gentry and adapted to local conditions by peasant farmers. In general, peasants held onto Lithuanian traits while the upper classes assimilated into the cultures of powerful neighboring nations.

Often when we speak of Lithuanian traditional culture, we mean that which was characteristic of 19th to early 20th century peasants. It was during that time period that Lithuanian national identity evolved and that the independent Lithuanian state was reborn. In addition, more information from this age has survived to our day than from any other earlier time periods. Thus we have made traditional culture of the 19th and early 20th century the focus of this booklet.

In the chapter called "Land and Origins" you will find general information about our country's nature, people, national symbols, ancient Baltic culture, mythology and state's history.

What are the ethnic regions of Lithuania? What kind of folklore are Lithuanians most proud of? How did we sing? What is a sutartinó? What kinds of folk instruments and dances existed in Lithuania? You will find the answers to these and other questions in the chapter "Word, Music and Dance".

"The Calendar Cycle" will present a broad overview of the rich spectrum of Lithuanian work and holiday customs.

How were infants welcomed into the world? How were people honored and remembered after death? What were Lithuanian weddings like? All of this information can be found in the chapter "Family Celebrations".

In the chapter "Clothing" you will learn about our ancestors' colorful holiday garments.

"The Table" describes how Lithuanians conducted feasts as well as ordinary meals. It also enumerates what foods were served and what rituals surrounded everyday bread. In this chapter you will also find several traditional recipes.

How simple work tools were decorated, what kinds of dishes were used, with what were beds covered, and how Easter eggs were decorated will be described in the chapter entitled "Applied Art".

What is a pirkia and a troba? With what kinds of pictures did farmers decorate their houses' interiors? Why is Lithuania called the country of crosses? You will find these questions answered in "Architecture and Figurative Art".

Finally, the chapter named "The Present Day, Folklore and Folklore Studies" will outline which traditions are alive today, and which are not, how traditional culture has been reborn in new forms and how it is researched.

1. LAND AND ORIGINS

Geographic Situation

Lithuania is a small country located on the eastern shore of the Baltic sea. It occupies the same latitude as Scotland and Denmark. It is interesting to note that 25 km north of Vilnius lies the geometric center of Europe. Lithuania's longest north-south span is 276 km, and east-west is 373 km. With a land area of 65,200 sq km, it is slightly larger than Belgium or Switzerland.

State Structure

Lithuania is a presidential democratic republic headed by the Seimas (Parliament), the Executive and the Court. Local government is executed through a system of territorial and administrative divisions. The country is divided into 44 districts which are further demarcated into 423 apylinkós (rural government units). There are 11 cities of national jurisdiction. The largest of these is the capital, Vilnius (pop. 0.6 million) which was first mentioned in historical sources in 1323. The second largest city according to population is Kaunas, and the third the port city of Klaipeda. The state language is Lithuanian.

The State Emblem

The official emblem of the Republic of Lithuania is called the Vytis. In it is pictured a white knight mounted on a steed set against a red background. This charging knight first appeared as the state emblem in 1366 on Algirdas's, Grand Duke of Lithuania's seal. This early form of the Vytis probably depicted the most powerful Lithuanian deity of that time the god of thunder, Perkunas, who was similarly visualized in other Indo-European cultures. During Lithuania's incorporation into the Polish-Lithuanian commonwealth and the Russian empire, the Vytis was added to these states' emblems.

In 1918-19, during the reinstatement of the independent Lithuanian state, the Vytis again became the national symbol. It remained so until 1940 when Lithuania was forcibly occupied and incorporated into the Soviet Union. During the period of Soviet rule, displaying the Vytis was considered a protest against the new government and was brutally punishable. After March 11 of 1990, the Vytis again became the official state emblem of the Republic of Lithuania.

It is interesting to note that the Vytis (the Pogonia) is the national symbol of the Republic of Byelorussia as well. This is due to the fact that historically Byelorussia was a part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

The Lithuanian Flag

The national flag of the Republic of Lithuania consists of a rectangular cloth onto which are applied three equally sized horizontal stripes:(from top to bottom) yellow, green and red. These colors symbolize Lithuanian nature and ideals; they often recur in folk art.

Historically, Lithuania has had many different flags. For example, during the battle of Zalgiris (Grunwald), the flag of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was the Vytis. The current tri-colored flag was created at the beginning of the 20th century, and became the official state flag in 1918. With the advent of the independence movement in 1988, it once again became the state flag.


Nature

Lithuania is located on the western edge of the Eastern European plain. It is a country of lowland plains broken by hilly uplands. Juozapinó hill (292 m) is the highest point in Lithuania. Often one hears Lithuanians referring to their country's kalnai (mountains) although these are really never more than small hills.

Lithuania boasts one of Europe's densest lake districts located in the eastern regions; in all, the country contains over 3000 lakes. The largest (Druksiai, 44.8 sq km), deepest (Tauragnas, 60.5 m), and longest (Asveja, 21.9 km) lakes as well as one of Lithuania's five national parks are also located in this region. Lakes and jûrós marós (seas) are popular in Lithuanian folklore.

A concentrated and complex river system drains the heavy precipitation which falls throughout the year. A major portion of Lithuania lies within the Nemunas river basin. This river is the largest and longest (937 km) in Lithuania. It is often mentioned in folk songs and folklore; in fact Lithuania is often called the land of the Nemunas.

Once all of Lithuania was covered with forests which contained many oak groves which were considered sacred. Today, only 28% of deciduous and mixed forests remain, while cultivated fields occupy the rest of the land. The Labanoras, Dainava and other woodlands are still relatively intact, and are full of mushrooms and berries each year. In some of the larger forests and remote areas, one can still find wolves, foxes, wild boars, deers, elks, and other large mammals as well as rare birds. Bisons, once common in Lithuania, were driven to extinction. Recent attempts to restock the bison from other eastern herds have been successful. The aurochs (Bos primigenius), ancestor of domestic cattle, disappeared in the 17th century.

Population

Lithuania's population was 3.8 million in 1991, 69% of which lived in cities. The average amount of people per sq km is 58, which is slightly less than the European mean. This is mostly due to the fact that population growth was halted in the first half of the 20th century during the World Wars. From 1940 to 1958 Lithuania lost 1 million people through emigration, deportation or death; only in 1969 did the population once again reach pre-war levels. In 1958-59 267,000 people, mostly Russians or Russian speakers, immigrated into Lithuania. This influx accounted for 26% of those years' population growth.

Lithuanians constitute a majority of the country's inhabitants ( about 3 million in 1989). Most of them consider Lithuanian their first language. Modern day Lithuania is somewhat smaller than it had been historically. As a result, many ethnic Lithuanians now reside in neighboring countries including Poland, Byelorussia, and the Kaliningrad District. Russians make up Lithuania's second largest ethnic group. They number 344,500, 90% of whom live in urban areas. Poles are the third largest ethnic group numbering 258,000 most of whom reside in Vilnius and southeastern Lithuania. People of other ethnic backgrounds are few.

Lithuania's dominant religion is Roman Catholicism, although Evangelical Lutherans, Evangelical Reformists, Russian Orthodox believers and others are also quite active.

The First People of Lithuania

The territory which Lithuania encompasses today was settled relatively late as most of Northern Europe had been covered with glaciers throughout the Ice Age. Eventually, the ice withdrew to Scandinavia, and only around twelve thousand years before our day did the land become inhabitable.

The first people to settle there were mostly reindeer hunters. They migrated in small groups from the southwestern shores of the Baltic sea (Denmark, Northern Germany and Northern Poland) and from the south (currently Poland and Byelorussia). These people belonged to the late Paleolithic Magdalenian and Swidry cultures which later evolved into the Neolithic Kunda-Narva and Nemunas cultures (3500-2500 BC). These ancient European societies were either matrilineal or divided roles equally between men and women. They were distinguished by their ceramics, sculpture and temple architecture. Weapons and horses were unknown to these cultures. These people worshipped a pantheon of female gods, and in general were peaceful and sedentary. Hunting and fishing were their main means of existence as agriculture was just beginning to develop at that time.

The peoples of the Nemunas and Narva cultures maintained contacts with northern and eastern Europe as well as with Indo-European central Europe. There many amber objects imported from the Baltic sea's shores were found during archaeological excavations.

The Formation of the Baltic Tribes

Around 3000-2500 BC, aggressive Indo-European tribes from the south began invading Lithuania's territory. They brought with them patrilineal culture, a patriarchal three-tiered social structure, animal husbandry and male deities. This was called the Corded Ware (or Boat-Axe) culture because of the ceramics decorated with rope impressions it left behind.

As time passed, the original inhabitants of Europe began assimilating into this new Indo-European culture. They acquired a new language, religion and occupations. Gradually, a group of Indo-European nations and tribes who spoke related languages began forming. They inhabited the forested expanses between the Wisla and the Volga and Oka riverhead, the Daugava and the central section of the Dnieper. 19th century scholars named these people the Balts.

The Baltic Tribes

The Balts once inhabited a large portion of eastern Europe, and as a result, soon after their formation they began differentiating into separate tribes. Herodotus, the founder of the study of history, made note of the Neuri people who lived to the west of the Mordvians and north of the "Scythian farmers" and their neighbors the Boudinoi. Tacitus, a Roman historian of the 1st century, recorded the existence of the hardworking Aestiorum Gentes farmers and amber gatherers.

Many later historical sources mentioned separate Baltic tribes. These included Scandinavian sagas, various war and march chronicles, the memoirs of missionaries, letters and so forth. Through these records we know how the Balts fought and traded, how they worked the earth and what gods they worshipped. The Baltic tribes consolidated into their final forms in approximately the 5th and 6th centuries. The Lithuanian and Aukstaiciai people drew closer to one another as Slavic invasions from the east stimulated the formation of a central Lithuanian state. From these tribes and others including the zemaiciai, and a portion of the Kurshes, Semigallians and Sellians arose the Lithuanian nation. The Latvian people arose from neighboring tribes to the north. These are the only two Baltic cultures that have survived until today. The Prussian tribes were destroyed in battles with crusaders, whose descendants later named their country Prussia. Some of the original Prussians and Yotvings fled to Lithuania. Baltic peoples living in the eastern expanses of Europe were assimilated into Slavic culture. Their legacy included only a few tribe names as well as many archaeological artifacts, hydronyms and cultural substrata.

The Baltic Languages

While other Indo-European languages underwent rapid transformations, the languages in the Baltic branch, and Lithuanian in particular, remained relatively unchanged. The Lithuanian language is characterized by an abundance of diverse word formations and synonyms. Out of all of the living Indo-European languages, it has best retained archaic sound systems, many morphologies and lexical features. For this reason, it is difficult for researchers to fully comprehend Indo-European languages without knowledge of Lithuanian.

Sanskrit and the Baltic languages constitute two poles between which are sought the origins of the Indo-European languages. There are in fact many similarities between these two tongues. For example, the following proverb written in modern Lithuanian and Sanskrit demonstrates these likenesses:

 "Dievas davó dantis, Dievas duos duonos"
 "Devas adat datas, Devas dasyati dhanas"
 (God gave us teeth, God will give us bread)

Baltic Culture

The arrival of the Indo-Europeans on the eastern shores of the Baltic sea marked the beginning of animal husbandry (especially that of horses) and the development of agriculture in that region. In Tacitus' day, the Balts were already ploughing their fields using wooden ploughs with iron ploughshares. As copper deposits did not exist in Baltic territory, its inhabitants were forced to trade for metal items and raw materials. The Balts developed their own methods of brass manufacture and created unique forms of jewelry. Later, they began smelting native iron ore found in their swamps and manufacturing weapons and tools.

Unquestionably, the Balts' main articles of trade were amber and forest products. In Roman territory, a small amber figure was considered more valuable than a slave. Amber made its way to Roman craftsmen via the "Amber Route" and pieces have been found as far as Greece, Egypt and Assyria. The Kurshes dominated the amber trade; thousands of Roman silver and copper coins have been discovered in their and other Baltic peoples' territories.

Over time, the Baltic tribes grew wealthy through agricultural and trading activity. They began building strongly fortified mounds on which it is thought local leaders lived. Ordinary farmers lived in villages near the foot of such mounds, and in wartime took refuge behind their wooden fortifications.  This system of hill fort settlements remained in place up to the time of the formation of the first Lithuanian state. Over time, some of these villages grew into cities.

In the first centuries of this era, known as the Roman or Golden Age, the Balts' trade, craftsmanship and agriculture flourished. These years marked the peak of the Baltic tribes' prosperity and influence, which stretched from the Wisla river in the west, to the Oka in the east.

Baltic Religion

Classical civilizations and later cultures had much influence on the Balts' culture, but they did not succeed in changing their beliefs. For the Baltic tribes, their ancient religion was not only the foundation of their worldview, but also the source of strength needed to battle against Christian Crusaders and other invaders. Lithuania was the last pagan state in Europe; the acceptance of Christianity began only 600 years ago after two attempts. Zemaitija, the western region of Lithuania, only began its religious conversion in 1413.

Ancient Baltic religion can be roughly reconstructed from historical sources and from customs and folklore still in use today. It retained many of the main polytheistic elements of ancient Indo-European religions including a three-tiered world structure. It is thought that at the top of the Baltic pantheon stood Dievas (God) who lived in the sky. Under him was the most active and powerful mythological personage, Perkunas, god of thunder. Perkunas was endlessly engaged in battle with his enemy, Velnias, who ruled the underworld. Teliavelis, the blacksmith god who crafted the sun and set it in the sky, assisted Perkunas. The sun, moon, morning star and the stars comprised the heavenly family which took part in a mythological wedding. Even today, one can still find the roofs of houses decorated with zirgeliai (pairs of wooden carvings in the form of steeds' heads) which are relicts of the cult of the twins.

There also existed a great number of lesser deities who were associated with agricultural labor cycles and who directed various aspects of nature and everyday life. The initiators of various mythological traditions were also deified. The numerous female deities (especially common in Latvian mythology) most likely survived from pre-Indo-European times. Many spirits lacking individual identities, and usually human forms, are still believed in today.

The outlooks of the various Baltic tribes differed somewhat, and they further altered as time passed. This division was reflected through the variety of burial customs which included the use of burial mounds, cremation, sinking and other methods. The dead were accompanied into the next world by their work tools, weapons and often steeds which the Balts held in great esteem.

Baltic sorcerers conducted religious ceremonies in sacred oak groves and on hills called alkai where holy fires were built within altars. One of the centers of religious activity was located in Vilnius in the Sventaragis vale where the cathedral stands today. The central Prussian temple, called Romove, was as sacred to Prussian and most likely other Baltic tribes as Rome is to Catholics.

History of the Lithuanian State

Lithuania long retained its own pagan religion and remained isolated from major trade routes. Therefore, it was only mentioned in historical sources relatively late (Quedlinburg Annals, 1009 AD). It was divided into local duchies during the 11th to 12th centuries. However, in the mid 13th century, the influential Duke Mindaugas united most of the Lithuanian territories as well as parts of other Baltic countries. This consolidation was hastened by pressure from German orders from the north and west, and Slavs and Mongol-Tatars from the east. The new strengthened government not only resisted these invasions, but also undertook expansion to the east and south.

By the late 14th and early 15th centuries, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (GDL) stretched from the Baltic to the Black seas; it was one of the largest European states of that time. The GDL played an important role in European history. The western expansion of the Tatars was halted by Lithuanian forces, and thus Europe was spared invasions from the east. The GDL also defeated the Order of the Cross, putting an end to 200 years of fierce warfare between the two powers, and to the Order's expansion into eastern Europe. However, the signing of two unification treaties with Poland (Kreva, 1385 and Lublin, 1569) resulted in the demise of the GDL.

Gradually, the Lithuanian state began losing its independence; the Polish-Lithuanian commonwealth weakened and was divided up amongst its powerful neighbors. Lithuania was incorporated into the Russian empire in 1795. Being proud and independent people, Lithuanians staged several revolts (1831, 1863). However, these attempts were unsuccessful and many of their participants were killed, exiled to Siberia, or emigrated to the west. Because of their refusal to obey, Lithuanians were forbidden to use their written language or publish books or newspapers in it. The first armed revolts were then followed by cultural resistance which took the form of sobriety movements, distribution of illegal publications and national rebirth.

Lithuania was occupied by its neighbors for such a long period of time that it lacked its own noble class; the gentry had gradually assimilated into Polish and later even into Russian culture. By the 20th century, purely Lithuanian traditions were only alive in farmers' cottages. However, during this time, a new intellectual class began forming which would play a critical role in the rebirth of the Lithuanian Republic in 1918.

During only two decades of independence, Lithuanians rebuilt much and prospered. However, the Soviet invasion of 1940 put an end to this activity and the German occupation from 1941-44 further decimated the land. The second Soviet occupation lasted from 1944 to 1990. Lithuanian patriots did not cooperate with either of the aggressors; they fought fiercely against both Hitler's troops and the Soviets. Resistance against the second Soviet occupation was especially persistent from 1944-54.

During the war and following it, Lithuania lost almost a third of its inhabitants. Many were exiled to Siberia, while others escaped to the West. No Lithuanian family was left untouched by these tragedies. However, freedom remained a secret hope of Lithuanians and on March 11, 1990 Lithuania once again regained its status as an independent republic.

2. WORD, MUSIC AND DANCE

Throughout history, Lithuanian verbal folklore, music and dance have undergone evolution with the passage of time. As late as the beginning of the 20th century, all of these expressional forms still had important roles in peasant culture. They fulfilled important functions in everyday life, work and amusement. As a result, the originality and variety of Lithuanian verbal folk arts is quite astonishing. Even though Lithuania is a small country, it is traditionally divided into four main ethnic regions. These divisions are based on dialects, traditions and other cultural elements: Aukstaitija (east), Zemaitija (west), Dzukija (southeast) and Suvalkija (southwest).

The variety of Lithuanian dialects is demonstrated by the map presented later in this chapter. The dialects of Zemaitija differ the most from the others. Their phonetic characteristics can only be recorded very roughly using the standard and literary Lithuanian language which arose from the dialects of Suvalkija.

The Art of the Word

Translating household dialectal speech is very difficult. Often the result differs so much from the original meaning that it becomes ridiculous or even comic. Dialectal speech expresses each ethnic region's individual psychology, and is much more animated than the standard language. The dialects of Dzukija resemble singing, whereas those of Zemaitija remind one of refined yet rude mockery.

Lithuanian dialectal language is rich in phraseologisms, proverbs, sayings and other such embellishments. Even though many of these forms have equivalents in distant cultures, quite a few examples, sayings in particular, can only be found in small areas. For example, only the Balts (Lithuanians and Latvians) would describe a gluttonous and lazy person as someone who "eats like a horse and works like a rooster", and someone who is happy for no reason, is "as happy as though he's found a bit of iron". Some sayings or proverbs are distinguished by their unique phonetic consonances, rhymed structures and plays on words, "Rasi rasoj rasi"(Maybe you'll find it in the dew). Maxims extol labor and put forth important principles to live by. They are used among adults to scold one another and as tools for educating children.

Lithuanian riddles are usually witty and are often characterized by rhyme and rhythm. Sometimes new words are specially created to maximize consonance. Children delight in these and other word games including teasing, counting and sound imitations. They learn about their surroundings through these devices. For example:

"I broke through the ice and found silver. I broke through the silver and found gold." ( an egg)
"A young lady in the bathhouse, her braids outside." (a carrot)
"A tablecloth covered with crumbs and a chunk of bacon." (the sky, stars and moon)
"The father of riddles lying in a puddle." (a tongue)

Riddle and story-telling often served as entertainment at parties and gatherings. The world of popular mythological legends (which people believed to be completely true) is inhabited by devils, sorceresses, laumes, aitvarai, kaukai, ghosts and others.  Many of these characters are of pre-Christian origin. Anyone can come across them in remote and unknown places especially during odd times such as while working or returning home after dusk. The outcome of such an encounter is sometimes happy, and sometimes not. If you find a piece of horse manure in the place of the new pipe you got last night, you can be sure that the traveler you traded with was no ordinary man, but a devil. If you left an infant out in the fields overnight on purpose, you might only find its bones the next morning and know that laumes had been at work. Tamed aitvarai carried goods and riches to their owners. Other Lithuanian legends describe the creation of the earth and the origins of various objects or phenomena usually according to Biblical events. However, these legends are less popular.

Legends are related to other surviving pre-Christian cultural elements such as those of holiday customs as well as beliefs, spells, farming methods following the moon and medicine. Secret magical healing knowledge and incantations were carefully preserved and guarded as they were handed down from generation to generation through carefully chosen heirs. Village inhabitants recount legends surrounding nearby hills, lakes and unusual trees or rocks. In many parts of Lithuania, people describe sunken cities and churches, lakes that fell from the sky when someone spoke their names, or rocks that had been carried and thrown aside by devils. Orally transmitted recollections of serfdom and national uprisings are also still alive today.

Many of the subjects of Lithuanian folk tales are quite similar to those of other cultures. However, they are distinguished by unique variations and calm delivery. The tellers employ mimicry and intonation changes sparingly and subtly. The characters that inhabit these tales do not have proper names or possess ones that only exist in stories. If you know someone named Sigute or Zilvinas, you can be sure that their names come from popular Lithuanian tales.

Mystical tales are most common and are often the most artistic. In them, heroes battle dragons or free people who have been turned into swans, grass snakes or other animals. The unique and tragic story of Zilvinas, the king of the grass snakes, his wife Egle, and their family remains as a relict of the ancient cult of the grass snake. Many stories involve orphans and evil stepmothers. Heroes are often aided by magical objects and heavenly or earthly helpers.

Short stories without endings and tales about animals are especially popular among children. Domestic and forest animals who behave like human beings, as well as exotic lions inhabit such pieces. Often grandmothers, while narrating certain stories, embellish them with short, simple sung pieces which are attributed to the stories' characters. More modern stories about the adventures of clever hired hands, gullible lords and matchmakers have no connection with ancient mythology and beliefs.

Songs

If you were to ask a Lithuanian about his country's traditional culture, you would most likely hear about Lithuanian songs and love of singing. Only a few decades ago, most women of Dzukija still knew a hundred songs; the most accomplished singers remembered as many as four hundred. Often, people sang more than they spoke. Songs were handed down from generation to generation, exchanged among villages and changed or augmented during these processes. As a result, many songs possess numerous textual and melodic variants. The largest archive of Lithuanian folklore (LLTI) alone contains over 400,000 collected songs.

Lithuanians, generally not known for outwardly expressive natures, would say that their folk songs reflect a broad spectrum of moods, but usually stop short of extreme joy or deep sorrow. However, visitors to the country notice these songs' lyricism and intimate nature. J.W.Goethe said of them, "Grave sorrow blankets these songs". Lithuanian songs depict the more dignified aspects of family and community relationships as well as contacts with nature.

From ancient times, the guardians and creators of Lithuanian songs have been women, therefore it is not surprising that they often reflect female points of view. The texts are lyrical (but seldom epic) narratives in which monologues and dialogues intertwine. They are full of metaphor and mythological symbolism. Abundant diminutive word forms lend the songs gentleness and intimacy. The characters that inhabit Lithuanian folk songs are simple and few in number: mother, girl, ploughman, reapers and so forth. The time and location of the action is usually ambiguous, for example "in father's manor" or "beyond deep seas, green forests and high mountains". Several types of parallels are universally present in song texts. Many examples contain especially poetic textual branches in which people are represented by nature: mother by the sun or linden tree, father by the moon or oak tree and so forth.

Even today, if you were to ask a village woman to sing a rye harvesting song in the winter she would be quite astonished. Most songs were connected to specific moments or actions. This accounts for the diversity of Lithuanian song genres including work, calendar cycle, wedding, christening, family life, children's, feasting, war-historical and others. Wedding songs are the most popular type throughout Lithuania; several of them have as many as 1000 recorded variants. Calendar cycle songs were performed during Advent, Christmas, Shrovetide, around Easter, Whitsunday ,St. John's day and other celebrations. Unique sound-words, pagan symbolism and archaic melodic elements specific to each occasion grace calendar songs. Ancient rye and hay harvesting and other field and house labor songs describe work poetically and laud industriousness. Understandably, war songs are especially sorrowful. Song texts dating from wars with the Crusaders usually contain the following sequence of events: sending brother off to battle, waiting for him to return, and finally his steed galloping home with the news of his death.

Once you could hear one singer improvise a recited lullaby (which she wouldn't even call a song) and the next moment perform a refined melody which dominated the text, even changing its stresses. At gatherings, everyone usually sang together, often in unison or in two voices. In newer, more popular double-voiced songs, the second voice follows the lead melody which is sung by one person or a group. The second voice is usually a third, or sometimes a fifth or fourth below the main melody. In other words, it follows the melody with these main supporting tones (TDS in functional harmony).

Singing techniques varied among the various song types and ethnic regions. For example, only the people of northeastern Aukstaitija could boast of their sutartines, ancient polyphonic songs that may seem dissonant to listeners with classical European music education.

Musical Instruments

Lithuania's instruments are quite similar to those of its Baltic neighbors and also bear some resemblance to those of the Slavic and Germanic peoples. They are quite uniform throughout Lithuania with the notable exception of northeastern Aukstaitija. Lithuanian folk instruments can be classified into four groups: string, wind, percussion and idiophonic.

Kankles are the oldest and most archaic of Lithuanian string instruments. They were thought to be associated with death. Lithuanians believed that in order to make sonorous kankles, the wood from which they were crafted had to be cut from a mature forest on the day that a loved one died. As the household mourned, the wood acquired depth and soul. Playing kankles was very much like meditating and was thought to protect the musician from death, disease and accidents. In general, only men played kankles and crafted their own instruments. In order to pass on old traditions, they explained the secrets of kankles crafting and playing to younger generations.

The body of the kankles has a trapezoidal form and is carved from a single piece of linden, maple, ash or alder wood. The instrument's wider end is cut diagonally. A fir wood top decorated with four-pointed, five-pointed or six-pointed stars and other patterns is fastened to the body. A metal bar to which metal or catgut strings are anchored was set in the narrow end. Wooden pegs fitted in the wide end regulate the tension of the strings whose number varies from five to twelve.

Kankles were played using the fingers or a wooden pick. They could be classified into three types according to number of strings, playing technique and repertoire: northeastern Aukstaitija (type I), western Aukstaitija and Zemaitija (II) or Suvalkija (III).

Another ancient Lithuanian string instrument, the pusline, is made from a tree branch bowed by a catgut or waxed string. A dried, inflated pig's bladder containing a handful of dried peas is fitted between the branch and string. A bow is then drawn across the string to produce a bass sound.

There existed an astonishing array of wind instruments in Lithuania. Shepherds often played whistles, svilpas (simple flutes) and birch bark strips. The lamzdelis is an instrument similar to a recorder made of wood or bark. It has three to six sound regulating apertures. Lamzdeliai were used by shepherds to play intricate melodies called tirliavimai, raliavimai, ridavimai or to play folk songs or dances.

Lithuanian reed instruments include the sekminiu ragelis and birbynes (reed-pipes) made of straw, wood or bark. The goathorn was an instrument popular among herdsmen. A man who played this instrument was held in high regard. Its repertoire was very diverse including tirliavimai melodies, folk songs, marches and dances.

The herdsman's horn is made from wood or wrapped bark. It was a signaling instrument used to help drive animals and to announce milking times. Some skillful herdsmen were able to play folk songs and dance melodies using this instrument.

Skuduciai, ragai and daudytes occupied a unique niche among Lithuanian wind instruments. They were found only in northeastern Aukstaitija and are described in the section dealing with that region.

The most popular percussion instrument in Lithuania was the drum. It was used to convey news, to invite people to gatherings, at burials, and later to accompany dances. Smaller drums with goat or dog hide covering one end were also popular. These were beat with the hands or with a stick.

Idiophonic instruments also conveyed messages. Tabalas consisted of one to three boards hung from trees, granary or bathhouse walls. Rhythmical signals beat on these devices announced herding times, emergencies and village gatherings. The dzingulis was used by wedding announcer to summon the guests. This instrument consisted of a one or two-forked branch decorated with rue sprigs and ribbons upon which bells were hung. It was struck on the floor to produce sound. The kleketas, terksle, and skrabalai were shepherds' instruments used to drive animals, scare birds and play games.

The bagpipe appeared in Lithuania around the 16th century and today only survives near the eastern borders. The bag was sewn from sheep or calf hide; two pipes (melody and drone) and a mouthpiece were attached to it. The bagpipe enlivened weddings and tavern festivities.

Other popular imported instruments include the Jew's harp, the dulcimer and the fiddle. Around the 19th century, drums with cymbols and the basetle became popular. The latter instrument is similar to a contrabass in form, but with only three strings.

The late 19th century heralded the appearance of new varieties of accordions in Lithuania: with one row of keys, two rowed German accordions, bandonions, concertinas, Petersburg accordions and harmonicas. Mandolins, balalaikas, guitars, clarinets and cornets appeared in the 20th century.

Folk music ensembles had long been popular in Lithuania. They sometimes consisted of a single instrumental type and sometimes of several. Mixed ensembles appeared in historical records as early as the 16th century. Village folk music ensembles were divided into two historical categories: old (before the early 19th century) and new (after the mid 19th century). Old groups performed using archaic musical instruments, such as kankles, lamzdeliai, birbynes. Fiddles were used as well. New groups replaced many of the archaic instruments with imported ones, such as accordions, clarinets and cornets. Village ensembles of different ethnographic regions varied.

Dances

Lithuanians, along with their Baltic neighbors, have always loved to dance. Young people gathered to dance in the fields in the summer, or in farmers' houses in the winter. Older people and small children also took part in these festivities talking, socializing, looking around and generally amusing themselves. Looking back further, dance was also once a part of ancient Lithuanian calendar celebrations and rituals.

The specific steps and movements of Lithuanian paired dances differ very little from those of neighboring countries. However, the character and spirit of our dances is unique. Even foreign dances which made their way to Lithuania (i.e. the Krakoviakas, Latisas, Aleksandra, Lelenderis, Valsas, Kadrilis and so forth) have acquired many new variants and distinctive characteristics. Lithuanians dance with great emotional energy which is never expressed externally. Since traditional lyrical folklore originated among farmers and peasants, it still retains their outlook; there are no war or hunting dances, no high jumps or kicks. Lithuanian traditional dances are dominated by subdued ring dances and games whose lyrics center around growing crops and livestock or relations between young people and matchmaking. Dance music has a moderate tempo, is usually symmetric and without large interval jumps.

Lithuanian folk choreography can be classified into four groups: sutartines ( ancient polyphonic songs with dances found only in northern Aukstaitija), and other genres widely known throughout Lithuania including rateliai (ring dances), zaidimai (games) and sokiai (ordinary dances).

The number of participants in rateliai (ring dances) is unlimited and the dancers themselves sing the lyrics without any instrumental accompaniment. Simply walking, the participants perform various movements which sometimes illustrate the song's text. However, usually these consist of simple movements repeated again and again: linking elbows and turning, zilvicio pynimas (weaving circles) and others. Rateliai have several forms including simple circles, double circles, rows, bridges, chains and gates.

Zaidimai (games) are rarely sung, and when they are, they do not follow strict rhythmical patterns.  These games hinge on creative improvisation, spoken text or dialogue and the performance of tasks. Some types of zaidimai are quite similar to rateliai.

Sokiai (dances) are accompanied by instrumental music and sometimes singing as well. Separate pairs dance in loosely structured spaces whereas group dances follow a larger plan. Sokiai consist of consecutively repeated movements, steps and figures.

Ethnic Regions

Dzukija

Dzukija is a region of scenic pine forests, hills and sandy soils. There is a saying that describes the poverty of this land, "if it wasn't for mushrooms and berries, Dzukija's girls wouldn't have clothes". However, it is said that from this hardship arose the Dzukai peoples' sincerity, sensitivity, gentleness and friendliness. Traditions survived the longest in this region. Dzukija also boasts the richest wealth of songs in Lithuania, representing many genres and variations of melody types. With little exception, the only surviving calendar cycle songs are found in Dzukija. Southern Dzukija is exceptional in the number of Advent and Christmas songs that can still be found there. Many Shrovetide, St. George's day and swinging songs arose from the small area of eastern Dzukija. Archaic antiphonic songs performed by two alternating groups of singers were also native to this area.

Single-voiced (or heterophonic) and solo songs are common throughout Dzukija. Solo singing is characterized by its individuality. One flexible melody can have many variants which acquire new meandering elements from one singer and time to the next. Wedding and burial laments are sorrowful, drawn out improvisations. Double voiced songs of later origin are also characteristic of Dzukija.

Today, songs from a wide variety of modes only exist in Dzukija; in addition to the widely known major and minor, these include the phrygian and other ancient (so-called Greek) modes. Here are two melodies from Dzukija. One is an archaic melody based on a third and the second a broadly, gracefully ringing one:

(melodija)

Instruments found in Dzukija are mostly those common throughout Lithuania; this region does not have any types unique to it alone. The bagpipe survived somewhat longer in this region than in others.

Dzukija, well known for its calendar cycle songs, is also home to unique Advent ring dances and games which contain many references to weddings.

Suvalkija

Suvalkija, a land of fertile plains, is Lithuania's agriculturally richest region. Its people are known for their industriousness, logical minds and thrift. Neighboring peoples joke that in Suvalkija, farmers bring only live turkeys to feasts for guests... to peck at the crumbs. Song melodies from this region are also economical and rational. Double and triple voiced singing, similar to that of Aukstaitija is popular in Suvalkija:

melodija

However, some ancient single-voiced songs similar to those of Dzukija and eastern Prussia still survive.

Kankles from Suvalkija have been influenced by classical instrumental aesthetics and are considered the most modern examples of this instrument. They feature the most strings (often twelve or more), heavy ornamentation and curved, spiral narrow ends. These kankles were used to accompany dances and songs. Examples from northwestern Zemaitija are quite similar in construction, though somewhat older.

Aukstaitija

Aukstaitija is Lithuania's largest region by land area. Eastern Aukstaitija is hilly and dotted with lakes, whereas the western regions are characterized by plains. Aukstaitija's inhabitants are said to be merry, poetic, ambitious farming people.

Two types of multiple-voiced songs, centuries apart in age, are characteristic of Aukstaitija.  Ancient sutartines, unique to northeastern Aukstaitija still survived at the beginning of the twentieth century. The verb "sutarti" means to agree, to be in concord, or to sing harmoniously. Only groups of women who were quite close to one another sung sutartines together. Here is the beginning portion of a simple example:

melodija

This is a keturine sutartine song by two alternating groups of women. Dvejines were sung by one pair, whereas trejines were performed canonically by three women. As mentioned earlier, most sutartines were characterized by dissonant second accords with contrasting accented syncopated rhythms and unusual modal scales. Approximately a third of sutartines contained elements of dance. These dances were quite simple and were usually performed by three or four women as they sang the sutartine.

In contrast, newer two-voiced songs with simple rhythms, meters and major modes are still popular in Aukstaitija today:

melodija

Although the songs of Aukstaitija cannot compare in variety to those of Dzukija, many types common throughout Lithuania as well as some unique genres exist in this region. These include valiavimai (hay harvesting songs performed by men), flax-working and resounding feasting songs. They were especially common in northwest Aukstaitija which is also famous for its delicious home-brewed beer.

Musical instruments in Aukstaitija are similar to those found throughout Lithuania. However, in the northeastern regions known for their vocal sutartines, unique instruments were also used to play analogous polyphonic music. Small, usually five-stringed kankles found in this region are the most archaic Lithuanian stringed instruments. They were used to play sutartines for the musician's own enjoyment, not for performance.

Men played skuduciai and ragai on their way to work in the fields, while resting during this work, or during gatherings. Skuduciai are similar to disassembled pan-pipes. They are crafted from hollow plant stems or wood. A set of skuduciai is made up of five to six individual pipes, each of which has its own tone. They were always tuned to second intervals and played by groups of men each of whom held one to three skuduciai. Five parts with different rhythmic formulae predominate and the melodies are of the sutartinó type. Ragai are wooden horns which are produced in sets of five. Each ragas is made of two hollowed-out wooden halves tied together with flax and wrapped in birch bark. The melodies played on these instruments are of the same type as those of skuduciai. Daudytes differ from ragai only in their form which is straighter and considerably longer. Two daudytes comprise a set, and each one can be used to produce three to five natural tones.

Zemaitija

Standing on this region's cherished Satrija hill, one can see all of central Zemaitija. In general, the people of Zemaitija are very reserved, reticent, stubborn and slow to make decisions, but sure to achieve their goals. It is said that what will be will be, what won't won't, but a zemaitis will always survive. During several centuries of warfare, the crusaders never succeeded in conquering the steadfast people of Zemaitija.

This firmness and slowness is also reflected in the region's songs. Though they are in major modes and double-voiced similarly to those of Aukstaitija, many of their rhythms are more complicated, unstructured and uneven, much like the speech of Zemaitija's inhabitants. The melodies are drawn out, with grace notes and are sometimes chromatic. It is almost impossible to convey the true character of these songs in musical notation:

melodija

Songs from Zemaitija cover only a narrow spectrum of genres and their melodic styles are most characteristically monolithic.

Kankles from Zemaitija (and those of western Aukstaitija) are larger and somewhat differently shaped than those of northeastern Aukstaitija. They have nine or more strings and are used to accompany dances and songs.

Zemaitija is known for its many imported pair dances which have acquired a local flavor.

Lithuania Minor

For many centuries, Lutheran Lietuvininkai lived separately from Catholic Lithuania in this small portion of Zemaitija (around Klaipeda) and in former Prussian territory conquered by Germany. Religion and dependence on the sea formed the chilly characters and ascetic way of life of Lithuania Minor's inhabitants.

The presence of words such as fisherman, boat and sea in song texts and sorrowful single-voiced melodies reflect the hardships of life by the sea. Unfortunately, these songs mostly disappeared long ago, and can only be reconstructed through the collections of the 19th century. Their melodies are astonishingly subtle, calm and freely flowing with unexpected modal shifts, chromatism and ambiguous modes. Often the variety of modes in this region's songs eclipses those of Dzukija:

melodija

In style the melodies somewhat resemble those of Dzukija, Suvalkija and Zemaitija. It appears that such forms had once been much more widespread in these regions. Lithuania Minor's songs also reflect much German influence.

3. THE CALENDAR CYCLE

Ancient Lithuanian celebrations, work customs and ceremonies often corresponded with the most significant days of the year: solstices, equinoxes and others. Many of these traditions dated back to pagan times. Lithuania was an agricultural nation, therefore it is not surprising that farming and husbandry left their mark on calendar celebrations. After Lithuania was converted to Christianity, the church began determining when holidays would occur. However elements of ancient pagan beliefs still existed alongside Christian ones in many holiday rituals. Often the dates of Christian holidays coincided with older pagan ones as agricultural cycles never changed. Holiday and work customs were not uniform throughout Lithuania. For example, Shrove Tuesday was most popular in Zemaitija, whereas rye cutting customs were observed mainly in Dzukija, and St. John's day celebrations were mostly found in northern Lithuania.

Christmas Eve (December 24th)

Christmas Eve in Lithuania was an occasion full of mysticism and secrecy. It was far richer and more meaningful in terms of custom and ritual than Christmas Day. More so than other holidays, Christmas Eve's rituals still retained many pre-Christian elements. It was thought that on Christmas Eve spirits returned to their homes. Because of this, no one went very far from home on the 24th for fear of meeting hostile spirits.

At sunset, a ceremonial dinner was served. Before sitting down to Christmas Eve dinner everyone had to make sure that they were clean, without angry thoughts, at peace with their neighbors and without any debts. The table was covered with hay and usually set with twelve meatless dishes, among them kuciukai(small, hard biscuits with poppies), oatmeal, cranberry pudding and so forth. Places were set at the table for recently deceased family members. Having eaten, the seated people pulled hay stalks from under the tablecloth to forecast their fortunes. A long stem meant a long life, whereas a short one meant that that person might not live until next Christmas. After dinner, the table was not cleared off so that the souls of dead family members could gather around it during the night.

Christmas Eve was a time for fortune telling, especially about weddings. For example, after dinner, unmarried young girls took as many fence pickets or logs into their arms as they could and then counted them. Even numbers meant that they would marry soon whereas odd numbers signified that they'd remain single in the following year.

Christmas (December 25th)

In contrast to Christmas Eve, Christmas Day in Lithuania was always a public celebration involving entire communities. The high point of the festivities occurred when costumed revelers visited all of the farmsteads wishing everyone a good harvest. These visitors were always showered with gifts. The main figure in this group was Kaledu senis (Father Christmas), a man dressed in an inside-out fur coat and flaxen beard with a bag and a stick. Father Christmas scattered grains from his bag onto each household's krikstasuolis (the corner of honor behind the table) and gave nuts to the children and young people. As the Kaledu senis made his way through the village, children from each farmstead ran out to meet him and filed behind him as he walked further. Costumed revelers continued similar activities until Three King's Day.

New Year's Day (January 1st)

New Year's Day was a part of the Christmas holiday cycle. Many of its traditions were similar to those of Christmas Eve.

Three Kings' Day (January 6th)

On the eve of January 6th, the letters KMB were written over the door of each household. These letters honored the three kings who came to greet the newly-born Jesus. On this day, costumed kings with retinues visited all of the farmsteads. Their clothes were seldom actually regal; they consisted of long furs, hats woven from thick sheaves of straw decorated with berry branches and so forth. The kings visited each house to greet its inhabitants with the news of Christ's birth, to herald the new year and to wish them a good harvest. In order to guarantee that the kings' blessings would be fulfilled, farmers showered them with gifts.

Shrove Tuesday (Seven Weeks before Easter)

Shrove Tuesday signaled the weakening of winter and the end of feasting and merriment during the time period between the Advent and Lenten fasts. Driving behind horses, sledding down a hill on a distaff board, doing the wash or dragging a chopping block on a rope on this day ensured a good flax harvest that year. Being sated during Shrove Tuesday meant being sated throughout the whole year. Thus, people tried to eat as often as possible on this day, even twelve times if they could.

In Zemaitija the most important part of this holiday was the merry procession of costumed people through villages. Many of their costumes were obvious caricatures: Shrove Tuesday Jews, beggars, angels, devils, death, traveling healers called Hungarians, zoomorphic masked characters (goats, cranes and others) and More's escorts. More was an effigy dressed in women's clothes affixed to a wagon wheel which turned as it was dragged on the ground. After everyone had fooled around enough, More was dragged outside of the village and burned. Gavenas was a similar figure popular in Eastern Lithuania. Shrove Tuesday's festivities ended with the cock's crow, and the next day marked the beginning of the strict Lenten fast.

Gavenia (Lent)

Gavenia was a seven week fast before Easter. Eating meat or dairy products or singing and dancing during this time period was strictly forbidden.

Stork Day (March 25th)

This holiday's main figure, the stork, was central to many Lithuanian agrarian beliefs. It was thought to bring luck to homes and horses. Stork Day's rituals revolved around grain. On this day, farmers stirred their planting seeds to increase their germinating power. It was said that snakes came out of their burrows on this day. In order to avoid bringing a snake home, no one cut wood or even so much as broke off a branch in the forest that day.

First Ploughing

The first spring ploughing was never begun before the first thunderstorm. Everyone tried to wake up as early as they could on the first day of ploughing so that their neighbors didn't have a chance to "plough under" the good luck of their harvests. Farmers smoked their ploughshares and ploughing animals with willow, ash, juniper, nettle or other plants. Before starting, they knelt down to kiss the ground and to cross themselves. Bread was ploughed into the first furrow as a sacrifice to the land. After ploughing, the remaining bread was divided among the family members or given away to beggars. Women sprinkled water on the returning ploughmen to ensure that there would be enough rain for the seeds to sprout.

Easter

The week preceding Easter (Grand or Souls' Week) was a time for abstinence and cleansing. Ceremonial Easter foods began with marguciai (dyed eggs) which were believed to possess magical powers. For the first time since the beginning of the Lenten fast, people were allowed to eat their fill of fatty foods. Easter evening and night, unmarried young men walked through the villages and played music. This ritual was called lalavimas. The young men stopped to wish each family a good year, harvest and health and to sing special songs for unmarried girls. The singers were rewarded for their music, most often with colorful Easter eggs.

St. George's Day (April 23rd)

On this day honoring St. George, the guardian of animals, the livestock was herded out into the fields for the first time. The animals were smoked with burning plants which were believed to have protective properties. Shepherds and livestock were sprinkled with water to protect them from illnesses, evil spirits and village sorceresses. Rituals centering around eggs were performed to increase the productivity of livestock. It was forbidden to abuse animals on this day. Farmers tried not to work their livestock and to feed it better fodder on St. George's Day.

Sowing

Before daybreak at the start of sowing, farmers gathered ash wood. They then chopped it up into small pieces and put these in with the first seed saying: "Lord our father, build an iron and steel fence around my fields". In order to protect their seeds from the spells of evil people, farmers burned tow fibers and placed hats over them. On the first day of rye sowing no one, not even shepherds, built fires so that the sun would not dry out the seeds.

Whitsunday (The Seventh Sunday after Easter)

Whitsunday was an occasion to honor vegetation and fertility. On this day, birch branches graced houses, yards and fields. Cows' horns were also decorated with birch wreathes to make the animals calm and productive. After driving the cattle home, shepherds walked through villages asking farmers for cheese made from seven or so pots of milk, loaves of bread with eggs baked into them, butter, buckwheat or pea pancakes and eggs. With this gathered food, the shepherds then held feasts in forests and fields. On Whitsunday, the village elders also went out into the fields to ceremonially visit the rye plants. There they feasted and drank collectively produced beer. Whitsunday usually corresponded with the end of the summer sowing season.

St. John's Day (June 24th)

In ancient times, this day was an occasion to pay homage to water, fire and plants. It was also a time to cleanse one's soul as well as to celebrate the summer solstice. However, over time, this holiday lost most of its sacral meaning and only its various festive elements remained. Traditionally, people gathered in beautiful spots such as on hilltops or by rivers to feast and honor men named John (Jonas). A large bonfire and wheel hub on a post were set afire. It was thought that the wider the area that was illuminated by the fire, the better the harvest would be. Young people gathered grasses with which they predicted their futures. Girls also wore wreaths and later set them afloat on rivers and lakes to find out if they would marry or not in the following year. Unmarried young men and women sang, danced and jumped over the remains of the bonfire until daybreak. St. John's Day dew was thought to have many magical healing properties. The dew was also used by village sorceresses for malevolent purposes - for preventing cows from giving milk.

Haymaking

Hay harvesting began around St. John's Day (June 24th). At dawn on that day, the lead harvester crossed himself and began the first cut. Hay harvesting also marked the coming of age of young men. A boy who cut hay well was first considered a man on this day. The harvest leader tied a bunch of flowering grasses onto his scythe to signify this fact.

Rye Harvesting

At the beginning of the rye harvest, the first plants gathered were tied into a small sheaf. This bundle was called the Diedas (old man) or the Guest and was set up behind the table in the place of honor. It stood there as a symbol of plenty until the first grain was taken from the fields. Then the sheaf was layed down with the dried and gathered rye. Before the main harvest, families gathered together in the ends of their fields, divided a slice of bread amongst themselves and ate saying: "Bread meets bread".

At the end of the harvest, the reapers left a small bunch of rye standing in the field. The harvesters stood in a circle around the remaining rye and, covering their hands with scarves or aprons, uprooted any weeds within it. The remaining rye plants were then braided and bent toward the farmstead to ensure that wealth would flow from the fields to the household.

The reapers wove a harvest wreath from the best ears for the lead harvester to carry to the farm owners. The entire group of harvesters was then met by the owners who invited them to the harvest table.

Zolines (Meadow Grass Celebration, August 15th)

This holiday coincided with the coming of autumn. People gathered grass from their fields and gardens and brought it to churches to be blessed. Rye, wheat and oat ears were tucked into these grass bundles. In the spring, these ears were crushed and sprinkled on the seeds to be planted. Other bundles of blessed grasses were used as medicine, as protection from lightning strikes and to be sewn into coffin pillows. Families always tried to gather together on this day to ensure the coming year would be a productive one.

Flax Pulling

Flax was usually pulled up by groups of helpers. The last sheaf to be tied was always larger than the others. Wreaths made from the best flax plants graced the harvest feast. The farmer's wife was seated in a chair decorated with flowers and greenery. The gathered workers placed a wreath on her head and lifted her chair into the air. Another wreath was woven for the best flax puller. It was placed on a plate around a cup of beer. Only after the lead harvester drank all of the beer in the dish was she allowed to wear her wreath.

Flax Breaking

Flax breaking usually began around dusk or after the first cock's crow. Groups of helpers gathered in bathhouses and threshing barns and worked all night. Many specific games accompanied flax breaking. In Zemaitija, the tradition of Kursis carrying survived until the beginning of the twentieth century. The Kursis was a straw effigy representing evil spirits which dried the grain. Towards daybreak, young men from another work group threw it into a neighboring threshing barn shouting at the workers:"Take the Kursis!". Then, the men ran off and hid. The flax breakers tried as hard as they could to catch the Kursis' bearers, and if they couldn't find the men, they became the laughing stock of the whole village. Afterwards, the gathered group violently tore the figure apart or burned it on a stake.

All Saints' Day and Velines (November 1st - 2nd)

Since ancient times, Lithuanians believed that after death, the soul separated from the body and continued existing among the living. Velines was an occasion to remember the deceased by decorating their graves with flowers, plants and burning candles. This was thought to bring their spirits nearer and to form a bond between the living and the dead. In Dzukija, Diedai bread was baked and handed out to beggars nearby the church on this day. This act ensured that in the coming year bees and rye would be plentiful.

St. Andrew's Day (November 30th)

St. Andrew's day marked the beginning of Advent. On this day, girls forecasted whether or not they would marry in the following year using water, hemp seeds, poppies and so forth.

Advent

Advent was a four week fast before Christmas. During this time, people tried not to work in the evenings, especially after midnight, as evil spirits were thought to be about then. In Dzukija, quiet youth gatherings were common during Advent. Specific holiday songs and games graced these evenings.

4. FAMILY CELEBRATIONS

Weddings

The most important way of preserving and continuing cultural traditions has always been, and still remains, through the family. In Lithuanian culture, starting a family was not just the couple's personal responsibility. Weddings were always community affairs joining not only two people, but two families. Thus, it was the duty of the two families and other villagers to make the occasion as festive and grand as possible. It is not surprising then that wedding festivities were rich in collective creativity and expression.

Lithuanian wedding rituals followed rigidly fixed forms. At the end of the 19th and early 20th centuries, weddings consisted of three separate stages: matchmaking, the wedding itself and atgriztai (coming back). Each one of these stages had strictly defined traditional elements which all participants observed.

The first stage included all of the rituals concerned with the pirslybos (official offer of marriage to the bride's parents), discussion of terms, examination of the groom's farm and finally the ziedynos (pair's decision to marry).

The wedding ceremony itself could then take place. The first part of the wedding was held in the bride's home, marking the end of the bride's life with her family and separation from her parent's home. The bride's farewells to her relatives, home and friends were dramatic and sorrowful. The climactic moment occurred when she finally drove off to her husband's house. All of these events were accompanied by the bride's raudos (lamentations) and farewell songs performed by the sorrowful family and guests.

The next important moment of the wedding was the bride's arrival at her husband's house. First, the kraitveziai (dowry drivers) arrived bearing the dowry in chests. These chests were filled with the results of many years of the bride's handiwork in expectation of her wedding: rolls of fabric, clothing, bedclothes, towels and woven sashes. The bride herself conducted the division of her dowry and other gifts. Her first act upon entering her betrothed's home was to place a colorful (usually red) sash or towel on the hearth or by the stove. This act was meant to gain the goodwill of the hearth's fire and the household spirits. She also hung sashes on the krikstasuolis (the place of honor), on the well's sweep and so forth. The husband's parents and family received woven sashes, towels and shirt materials as gifts.

During the wedding ceremonies, the bride's youthful wreath of rue was replaced by the mature woman's headdress. This ritual symbolized the acceptance of the bride into her new home as well as her transition from girlhood to womanhood. The other married women, led by the svocia (matron of honor), conducted this part of the ceremony. Married women's head wear varied among Lithuania's cultural regions. For example, in Aukstaitija, wives wore elaborately tied linen sashes called nuometas on their heads.

All of the wedding participants made sure that all accepted and familiar customs were followed. For example, they guarded the bridal pair, especially the bride so that evil persons could not damage their health or fertility. Corresponding spells and rituals were conducted in order to protect them. The young pair was showered with grain and water and clothed in furs to insure that they'd be rich and successful growing grains and livestock.

The third part of the wedding ceremony, atgriztai (coming back), was comparatively simple and quiet. Approximately a week after the wedding, the bride drove back to her parent's house for a brief visit. For the first time, they took her into their home as a guest instead of as a member of the family.

Childbirth - Christening

In Lithuania, it was thought that various evil spirits, as well as improper behavior, could harm expectant mothers. For this reason, women had to observe a number of restrictions during pregnancy. It was also the responsibility of the entire village to protect pregnant women.

Childbirth in Lithuania was shrouded in secrecy. The news of a birth was always spoken of using indirect phraseology such as : "The oven fell apart at Petras's" or "It's joyful at Antanas's".

Traditionally, soon after birth, all of the mother's neighbors and relatives came to visit her and her infant. Men never paid such visits, only married women did. Each guest was required to bring at least symbolic gifts for the mother and child, as coming empty-handed was thought to jeopardize the child's good fortune. In many areas, it was customary to bring an omlet or a buckwheat loaf as such a present.

Two or more weeks after the birth, the family held the child's christening in which several pairs of godmothers and godfathers played an important role. The selection of a child's godparents was crucial as it was thought that the child would inherit their temperaments and habits. This process tied families together as the godparents took upon themselves part of the responsibility of raising the child. Historical sources reveal that this tradition predates the introduction of Christianity to Lithuania. In spite of centuries of prohibition, Lithuanians upheld the custom of appointing more than one pair of godparents until the 1940's.

Death - Funerals

Lithuanians foretold impending death using various omens such as the odd behavior of domestic and wild birds, prophetic dreams and so forth. Even after death, noise was kept to a minimum in homes as it was thought that the spirit separated from the body at death, but did not leave the house until the corpse had left it.

The wake was always held in the family's living room. The deceased was always dressed in his or her best clothes; unmarried girls wore bridal clothes and wreaths of rue. The body was not buried for three or more days during which the friends and family stayed at its side day and night. In the evenings, the neighbors gathered to pray and sing hymns.

In southeastern Lithuania, the tradition of singing laments (raudos) over the corpse survives unto this day. Laments performed a number of functions including expressing the mourners' pain and loss, and bemoaning the sorrowful plight of the orphaned children. The mourners recalled all of the deceased's good deeds and invited him to continue visiting his family in order to protect and defend them.

Lithuanians always honored the memory of their dead. Graveyards were considered sacred places whose tranquillity was not to be disturbed. From ancient times, Lithuanians believed that the spirits of the dead returned to visit their former homes during holidays. Not displaying enough regard for dead family members on these occasions was thought to provoke their wrath. Spirits were supposedly able to take revenge by damaging crops, the fertility of livestock, and people's health. Therefore, families diligently prepared for holidays by cleaning every corner of their houses, washing, laundering and wearing clean clothes. Traditional foods once prepared by the family's mothers and grandmothers were always served on these occasions. The dead were still considered members of the family and they were cared for together with the others during the feasting. Leftover food from holiday tables was divided among beggars as it was thought that they had mysterious ties with the dead.

5. CLOTHING

Lithuanian villagers were still wearing traditional folk costumes at the end of the 19th century and later in some areas. The costumes of each of Lithuania's ethnic regions were unique, decorative and expressive of that particular area's and individual's character.

Men's clothing worn on Sundays and festive occasions was quite soberly colored. Lithuanian men wore greatcoats and short jackets of dark or undyed wool. In most regions, trousers and vests were of the same color as the rest of their suits, though bright plaids and stripes were popular in some areas. High cut leather boots, bright woven sashes and felt hats decorated with peacock or rooster feathers were common throughout Lithuania.

In general, women's clothing was more picturesque than men's and displayed more traditional regional characteristics. A typical woman's costume consisted of a white linen shirt, a skirt, a decorated bodice, and an apron. In addition, women often wore large shawls or stoles draped over their shoulders. These costumes were completed with elaborate headdresses, jewelry and various accessories.

Women's clothing of the Aukstaitija region retained many archaic characteristics. Married women in this land wore nuometas (tied white linen sashes or wimples) as head coverings. Nuometas and other white fabrics were decorated with red ornamentation. The dominance of the color white in their costumes lent married women in Aukstaitija dignity and solemnity.

In Zemaitija, women's garments were for the most part vividly colored and bulky. Several full skirts and shawls were worn at the same time. The color red was especially popular among the women of this region. They often brightened white linen aprons with dense red stripes and linen shawls with lively plaids.

The women of Dzukija wore colorful, finely checked skirts and aprons decorated with bright, playful designs. Lace, crochet, interweaving and embroidery adorned clothes were common in this region.

Women's apparel in Suvalkija was traditionally richly colored. Bright overlay patterns against dark backgrounds characterized aprons in this region. White linen items in Suvalkija were particularly artfully and delicately made. Women's stoles, shirts and kerchiefs sported intricately crafted lace and white broderwork.

Women's garments in the Klaipeda region in the second half of the 19th century were somberly colored and elegantly proportioned. Shirts, kerchiefs, stoles and caps were especially beautifully and creatively embroidered. In this region, knitted gloves, mittens and stockings sported colorful and inventive patterns.

Sashes

Since ancient times, sash making was one of the most widely practiced folk weaving craft in Lithuania. Sashes were used to tie garments, swaddle infants, perform various rituals as well as to be given as gifts or sacrifices. The patterns woven onto these sashes were especially meaningful as they displayed a unique symbolic language passed down from ancient times.

Traditional sashes were woven from brightly dyed linen, cotton and wool threads. They could be classified into three groups according to crafting technique: plaited, twined or woven (pick-up or overlay patterned). Some of these techniques were quite ancient and only survived into this century in isolated regions.

Plaited sashes were worked from wool threads by hand without any tools. They could be found in Aukstaitija up to the turn of the century. Twined sashes woven on wooden square cards, according to archaeological information, were once common throughout Lithuania. Such antique sashes once boasted complex patterns, however by the beginning of the 20th century, simple, even single colored examples were being made only in parts of Eastern Aukstaitija.

Pick-up patterned sashes were most popular in 19th century Lithuania. They were common throughout all of the ethnic regions, especially Dzukija and Suvalkija. The foundation was woven from linen or cotton - and ornamented with pick-up patterns of wool threads. These decorations were geometric in nature, usually red, green and occasionally violet, blue, rose or some other color. Ancient symbols, including heavenly bodies (most often the sun), earth and vegetation forms were depicted repeatedly in sash patterns. The region in which a pick-up patterned sash was made could be determined by examining its patterns and color scheme.

6. THE TABLE

Dining Etiquette

Lithuanian dining customs were unique, rigidly structured and strictly observed. Each family member had an assigned place at the table. The head of the household sat at the end by the wall, in the place of honor. The other men sat along the wall, and the women opposite them. Families always invited any guests or beggars that had arrived that day to their tables. Important guests were seated either in the father's place, or beside it.

Meals always began with the slicing of bread which was the sacred duty of the head of the household. First he broke off one corner of the loaf and gave it to his eldest married son wishing him the good fortune of someday having sons. He then cut slices for the other family members who placed them respectfully on the table. The remaining loaf was placed with its cut face towards the place of honor or towards the sun. Putting the bread on the table upside-down was considered insulting and profane. It was thought that the bread could take revenge for such treatment by causing the death of one of the household. Slices were always broken off using both hands because producing the bread required two hands. To leave a knife lying with its sharp edge upwards was to invite misfortune. Children were taught that if they dropped a bread crumb on the floor, they must pick it up, cross themselves, kiss and eat it. Many customs honoring bread appeared in various aspects of Lithuanian life. For example, a loaf of bread was always placed in the foundation of a building as it was being constructed.

When a certain dish was served for the first time after the new year, the eldest member of the family unexpectedly struck someone else on the forehead with a spoon saying, "Here's something new!". The struck person could only retaliate against someone younger than himself. This tradition was common throughout Lithuania. No one, not even guests, could rise from the table until everyone had finished eating.

19th century and earlier literary sources mention Lithuanian hospitality. Guests were greeted warmly and invited into the best room. Even hurriedly prepared meals for guests featured special foods not eaten every day: skilandis (a type of Lithuanian sausage), cheese, honey and home-brewed beer. Guests never ate or drank anything without the host's urging. Pressing food on visitors insistently was considered the mark of a generous host.

The head of the household began special meals by pouring himself a cupful of beer from a pitcher and saying to the guests, "To your health. Drink brothers and celebrate!" He then spilled a few drops, drank the cup dry, filled it again and handed it to a guest. In this fashion, the cup made its way around the table as the gathered people said "Be healthy!" and replied "To your health!"

Foods

Special and everyday food varied according to season. Animals were slaughtered in the fall and winter, therefore more meat was eaten at those times. Milk, vegetables, berries, mushrooms as well as various flour-based dishes were more abundant in the spring and summer.

Lithuanians baked white bread only on special occasions whereas black rye bread was one of the most ancient staple foods eaten at every meal. It was made by mixing rye flour with warm water in a wooden dough trough in which some dough from the last batch had been left. It fermented overnight, then was mixed with flour, kneaded, covered and left to rise in a warm place. Lithuanians started baking scalded bread at the end of the 19th century. Its dough was mixed in hot water and fermented up to three days. Such bread was sweetish and didn't go stale as quickly as regular black bread.

Large oblong loaves were shaped on wooden baker's peels, covered with maple, cabbage or sweet-flag leaves to add flavor, and placed in a hot oven. Bread baking days were considered special occasions during which homes were quiet and no one argued. If a visitor arrived at the household that day, he had to wait until the bread was done at which point the homeowners gave him a piece to take with him on his journey. Women transferred the responsibility of bread baking to their eldest daughters with special rituals.

Lithuanians made porridges from a number of different grains. Flour pancakes were common throughout the country. Large, thin pancakes (similar to crepes) were commonly eaten for breakfast in Aukstaitija. They were rolled up, dipped in sour cream, or topped with fried pork drippings or milk curd sauce.

Lithuanians have long used dairy products. Milk was drunk sweet or curdled. Butter and farmer's cheese were widely used foods. Such cheese was made from natural milk curds, with the addition of caraway seeds. The mixture was put into a linen cheesecloth and squeezed. The resulting product was eaten fresh or dried, mostly during holidays. Sweet cheese was popular, especially in Zemaitija. To make it, first milk was combined with eggs and other products. Then the resulting mass was curdled by adding pieces of dried calf's stomach and then the cheese was pressed.

Meat was secondary to grains in Lithuanian cuisine. Lean pork and bacon was boiled or baked. For longer storage it was salted down for several weeks in large troughs or vats and then smoked (except in Dzukija). In Zemaitija, people smoked meat in chimneys, in Aukstaitija in bath houses and in Suvalkija in specially constructed smoke houses or chimneys. The meat was suspended for several days over wet and rotten logs which burned giving off much smoke. At the end of this process, a juniper branch was added to the fire to give the meat a pleasant aroma. Skilandis was a favorite Lithuanian delicacy mostly served during feasts and the summer work season. It consisted of coarsely chopped good quality pork, garlic, pepper and salt tightly packed into a pig stomach and smoked. Smoked meat products are still popular today and smoking techniques are virtually unchanged.

Beets and turnips have long been a part of Lithuanian cuisine. Beets and beet stalks were eaten freshly boiled or pickled in the winter. They were often used in hot soups to which dried boletus mushrooms were added during fasting periods. Even today, cold beet soup, with cucumbers, dill and eggs is popular in the hot summer months. It is often served alongside a dish of hot boiled potatoes. Fresh and pickled cabbage soups are also common. Milk-based soup with vegetables (potatoes, peas, carrots, cabbages) or pieces of flour dough was often cooked for dinner.

Potatoes were introduced to Lithuania in the 18th century, and they quickly became a staple food. Boiled potatoes were served in various ways: with sweet or curdled milk, with fried pork drippings, and in Zemaitija with hemp seeds as well. Grated potatoes were used to make pancakes, vedarai (potato sausages), dumplings and potato pudding. siupinys was a traditional everyday and holiday (Christmas and Shrovetide) food popular in Western Lithuania. It consisted of boiled potatoes or barley, peas as well as various cuts of pork including lips, ears, feet, heads and tails.

As mentioned earlier, beer was especially popular in northern Aukstaitija. Home-brewed whiskey and mead, a weak alcoholic drink made from honey, graced Lithuanian holiday tables. Although the original techniques for making mead were lost, today it is still manufactured quite successfully.

Now that you know a bit about Lithuanian cuisine, we invite you to try some of these traditional recipes on your own:

Kastinis

This dish made from butter and sour cream is very popular in Zemaitija. In a clay bowl heated in a pot of hot water (similarly to a double-boiler) slowly combine equal spoonfuls of butter and sour cream while continuously stirring with a wooden spoon. When the ingredients form a thick even mass in the bowl, add salt, pepper and onions. Pour the kastinis into smaller bowls and let cool. This dish can be eaten with bread or hot potatoes.

Didzkukuliai (Cepelinai)

Ingredients: 1 kg uncooked potatoes, 3 or 4 boiled potatoes, ground beef, milk curd or mushrooms

Peel and grate the raw potatoes, then squeeze out the excess liquid from them through a cheesecloth. Let the starch settle to the bottom of the liquid, then pour the liquid off and add the starch back to the potatoes. Peel and mash the boiled potatoes, then add them to the grated ones. Add a dash of salt and knead the mass well. Then take approximately egg-sized pieces of this mixture and form them into patties. Place spoonfuls of the previously prepared filling into the center of the patties. Most often such a filling is made from ground beef, milk curd or mushrooms with salt and spices. Close the patties around the filling and form them into ovoid shapes. Then place the cepelinai in salted boiling water and cook for approximately 30 minutes. Cepelinai are eaten with bacon or melted sour cream and butter sauce. This dish is very filling, and was traditionally only served for guests or during heavy labor seasons.

Gero apetito! (Good appetite!)

7. APPLIED ART

Lithuanian craft, as a unique form of everyday expression, is closely related to traditions, beliefs and songs. This applied art reveals ways of living, understanding and creating beauty that are passed down from one generation to another. However, the results of centuries of folk craftsmanship, unique from one household to another, exist today mainly in museums. Modern observers are often impressed by this work's subtlety, intricacy, moderation, creative use of native materials and unity of ornament, form and function.

Lithuanian women's work tools were especially artfully crafted. Free standing and connected distaffs, mangles, weaving tools were graced with geometric patterns (circles, diamonds, triangles, suns, stars and zigzags) interwoven with plant, tree, bird and other nature motifs. Towel racks and silverware boxes boasted carved contours, relief and perforations. Cupboards, dowry chests and boxes were fitted with beautiful metal bindings and painted with birds, flowers, or plants in vases.

Most Lithuanian women knew how to spin and weave from girlhood. They created white linen towels, tablecloths, bedspreads, bedclothes and pillow covers woven with simple geometric broken bands and square patterns. The edges of these items were hand-worked with red or blue bands, zickai (woven pick-up patterns of color-fast thread), lace or crochet. Beautifully woven towels were hung upon towel racks in living rooms, given as gifts during weddings and used during funerals.

Colored fabrics featured rich yellows, greens, reds, violets and blues accented by black threads. Bedspreads demonstrate great variety in terms of color combinations and ornamentation. They were woven with horizontal and vertical stripes, and plaids using rep, pick-up, overlay and other techniques. Knitted stockings, mittens and gloves were decorated with variously proportioned geometric patterns.

Lithuanian ceramics were characterized by practical forms and moderate decoration. Black clay and colored pottery was common throughout Lithuania. Simple clay whistles for children assumed an astonishing array of shapes: lambs, horses, riders and birds.

Baskets and other items woven from straws, rushes, twigs, bast, thin strips of wood or birch bark had shapes suited to their functions. Sodai (gardens) were intricate hanging straw sculptures which served as decorations at weddings. Their forms, though generally geometric in nature, were quite varied.

Lithuanian Easter eggs were a unique form of graphic and artistic expression. Both scratched and dyed (using a beeswax resist method), eggs sported zigzag, snowflake, star and rue sprig patterns.

Shrovetide masks and verbos of the Vilnius region (dried flower bouquets made for Palm Sunday) are examples of applied art connected to calendar cycle celebrations.

Archaeological finds revealed unique artifacts crafted by ancient Baltic peoples: Neolithic amber amulets, fastening brooches, and other brass, silver or horn items.

In recent years, mass-produced objects have all but replaced handworked items in everyday life. Folk art objects have lost their practicality and become mere household decorations. Unfortunately, the process by which craftsmen passed their skills to further generations has been interrupted. However, modern folk artists have begun actively seeking inspiration from older works through publications and museum exhibitions.

8. ARCHITECTURE AND FIGURATIVE ART

Since ancient times, homes and farmsteads, referred to in folk songs as "little manors" , retained immeasurable value for Lithuanians. The works of village and small town craftsmen, including wooden churches, chapels, belfries, windmills and other examples of folk architecture, reflected their ingenuity. However, the farmstead, as an individual's sphere of existence and work was the most important means of self-expression. Dwellings, granaries, cow sheds, barns with orchards, trees and flower gardens formed harmonious groupings which were sensitively integrated into the landscape.

Houses and granaries reflected regional differences most clearly. Lithuanian dwellings consisted of two main varieties: the troba of the Zemaitija region and the pirkia of Aukstaitija. Coastal houses were analogous to trobas, whereas the stubas of Suvalkija bore some resemblance to both trobas and pirkias. Externally, trobas and pirkias could be easily differentiated by their roof and wall plane proportions. In Zemaitija, roofs comprised up to two-thirds of the building's height whereas in Aukstaitija this proportion was only one half. In addition, the porches of pirkias in Aukstaitija were decorated much more heavily. Both building types had entryways on the side facade which divided the structure into two parts and determined the arrangement of the rooms. Trobas had 8 to 10 rooms, whereas pirkias had fewer, but they were always layed-out symmetrically unlike those of the troba. Both the pirkia and the 400 year old troba have common origins with other double-ended houses of Central and Eastern Europe. The numas is a very ancient building type of Zemaitija that has survived into our age. It consisted of a walled structure entered from the end covered with a four-sided roof. This building held living quarters for people and animals under the same roof. Once an important object in Baltic culture, over time it became used as a storage and farm work building.

The passing of time altered the character of Lithuanian villages. The Valakas Reformation of the 16th to 18th centuries organized scattered farmsteads into orderly linear street-oriented villages. In the 19th century this order began crumbling with the allocation of individual farmsteads. This process accelerated after World War I. Today, street -oriented villages only remain in Eastern Lithuania and Dzukija. Few beautifully-landscaped farmsteads survive today as many of their former owners were exiled and their homes deteriorated or were destroyed. Most of the remaining inhabitants were relocated to brick buildings within collective farms.

Lithuanians decorated their houses reservedly and modestly. Porches, windows and other carved pieces were always secondary to overall architectural form. This reserved dignity was reflected within, where colorful cloths, pictures, including paintings and woodcuts purchased from folk craftsmen decorated interior surfaces. Quite a few of these works are found today in churches and chapels.

The spiritual lives of Lithuanian villagers were most clearly reflected through the crosses and shrines they built. Lithuania has been called the land of crosses, and the sculptural elements incorporated into these works attest to the talent and dedication of unschooled peasant artists. Such structures stood in farmsteads, by crossroads, bridges, fords and other dangerous places. They often commemorated accidental deaths, consequently such crosses were quite common in graveyards. People also erected them to ask for help, protection, to commemorate important family events (for example a child's birth or death), to express gratitude, to repent for a crime and so forth.

The sculptural subject of each cross depended on the reason for its building. They were always derived from pictures in churches, the lives' of Saints or the Scriptures. Accordingly, subjects depicting Christ were common: Christ Crucified, the Pensive Christ, Christ of Nazareth and the Baptism of Christ. The Holy Virgin was also pictured in various forms: the Pieta, the Madonna with Infant and similarly. Other saintly figures included St. George and St. Florian, John the Baptist, Anthony and Isadore, St. Anne and St. Agatha, Providence, the Last Supper, the Holy Trinity, Adam and Eve and so forth.

Carved and painted Stations of the Cross graced church and chapel walls. Bright colors and heavy forms of these sculptures lent them sobriety and stability. Although these religious subjects were familiar, each new interpretation revealed fresh spiritual and aesthetic qualities.

In common with sculpture, Lithuanian small-scale architecture was quite varied and creatively constructed. Carved ornamentation on the roofs of wooden shrines and on the crosses themselves attested to the individuality and free expression of each craftsman. A wrought iron cross decorated the top of roofed wooden crosses.

During fifty years of occupation, many old Lithuanian traditions were damaged or interrupted. This was especially true of cross and shrine crafting. Many old examples were destroyed by force or neglect, and building new ones meant risking retribution. This was painfully demonstrated many times during the repeated destruction of the Mount of Crosses. This was once the site of a fortress, of which today only a mound remains standing near Siauliai. For more than a century, people erected crosses on this hill for all sorts of reasons and occasions. Each time Soviet forces destroyed the crosses, they would reappear again overnight.

Following World War II, Lithuanian sculpture and small-scale architecture underwent thematic changes, lacked any religious content. In the 1970's, most common memorial outdoor sculptures, such as those of Ablinga, the Ciurlionis Road and Raganos Mount marked a resurgence of interest in folk art.

The history of Lithuanian folk painting and printmaking was somewhat different; its natural development had already ceased by the early 20th century. Therefore, it was not as hurtful to see this genre reborn in a secular guise as in the case of folk sculpture which had flourished up until the Soviet occupation. Post-war Lithuanian primitivism painting displayed its own unique artistic outlook and use of color. Many talented Lithuanian folk artists attracted notice outside of Lithuania as well as within.

Contemporary fine arts, especially sculpture and small-scale architecture, still retain connections to Lithuanian ethnic culture. This fact attests to the depth and strength of Baltic cultural heritage.

9. THE PRESENT DAY, FOLKLORE AND FOLKLORE STUDIES

The Disappearance of Traditional Culture

As early as the 19th century, researchers began noticing that the new generation of Lithuanian women who sang didn't know as many traditional songs as their mothers and grandmothers had. However, traditional peasant culture only began rapidly vanishing from everyday life in this century. The influence of city culture, changing farming systems and the division of villages into farmsteads contributed to the disappearance of old collective field work traditions and accompanying songs as well as other forms of folk culture. Fifty years of Soviet rule dealt a fatal blow, almost completely destroying the old village farm structure and replacing it with a collective farm system. In addition, the demographic situation was changing. Young people migrated en masse to seek work or higher education in the cities, leaving behind the older generation.

Driving across Lithuania, one sees many small scattered groups of trees in the middle of fields. These mark the locations of farmsteads or the deserted remains of such inhabitation. Many of their former residents were exiled, killed in the war or resistance movements or moved to central collective farm settlements. These brick inhabitation lacked the character of the old villages.

However, especially in Dzukija, one can still find fairly well preserved wooden linear street-oriented villages which have been rebuilt and renovated to varying extents. Throughout Lithuania, villagers tend personal farm plots, though they are gradually reclaiming privatized land. Although some modern machinery is used, old farming methods are still predominant. The villagers produce most of their own food products using traditional techniques; they smoke their own meat, press farmer's cheese, and some bake their own bread and churn butter as well. Customary foods still surviving in the villages(especially those associated with Christmas Eve) have found their way onto the tables of city dwellers. Although today clothing material is purchased, in some villages there are still women who weave multi-patterned and colored bedspreads and other pieces. Clothing worn everyday and on special occasions follows city fashions and no longer retains distinct Lithuanian traits.

Many years of Soviet occupation did not noticeably lessen the influence of the church in village culture. Lithuanians, especially those of the older generations, actively attend Sunday prayers and celebrate church holidays. In some of these celebrations, Pre-Christian ties between people and nature are still evident. For example, during Whitsunday, houses are still decorated with birch branches; on Corpus Christi Day, farmers walk around their fields and have them blessed. As in earlier times, bundles of grass are still blessed during Zolines. On saint's days, bread, water, fire, grains and other objects are also blessed to lend them various magical properties.

Ancient field work customs have essentially disappeared, however labor is often still conducted in accordance with church holidays and parish calendar festivals. During the Soviet era, attempts were made to organize new ideological harvest celebrations, however they were never truly integrated into the lives of village inhabitants.

Efforts to desacralize everyday life resulted in the ascendance of New Year's Eve as one of today's most important holidays. However to most village as well as city dwellers, Christmas Eve has retained equal or even greater meaning as the first part of the new year cycle. The survival of this holiday can be explained by its family oriented, closed and, especially during the postwar years, secretive nature.

In some villages, the traditional Three Kings' masquerading procession is still held every year. Quite a few villages in Zemaitija can boast of uninterrupted Shrove Tuesday carnival and pre-Lenten merriment traditions. As with Christmas Eve, both village and city families still celebrate Easter; they dye Easter eggs using traditional and modern techniques. A week before Easter, on Palm Sunday, near churches, one can see groups of people carrying verbas. The Vilnius region is famous for its unique verbas (dried flower arrangements), which burst forth into color during the traditional Kaziukas fair held in Vilnius to celebrate the feast of St. Casimir, patron Saint of Lithuania.

Many of the customs associated with Jonines (St. John's Day) had already vanished earlier. Today there remains only the burning of bonfires, festivities, feasting and the honoring of men named Jonas. The mass character of Jonines was exploited by ideological culture which embellished it with uncharacteristic elements and vulgar forms. In this way, Rambynas Mount, once famous for its role in Jonines traditions, became the site of Communist Youth celebrations.

The only meaningful surviving autumn celebration is that of Velines and All Saints' days which are dedicated to the honoring of the dead. Traditionally, people visit the graves of deceased loved ones, tending them and lighting candles. This tradition survived in villages and cities in spite of all attempts to destroy it, including through atheistic propaganda. Most other calendar celebrations have only retained elements connected with church rituals.

Modern Lithuanian weddings no longer contain intricate customs as they once did. However, the main structural elements of traditional weddings still survive, especially in rural areas. Many couples choose to celebrate their weddings in their parents' native villages. Old rituals, their true meanings forgotten, sometimes acquire coarse forms; amusement and the bounty of the wedding feast's table are emphasized. The process of secularization did not succeed in convincing all couples to wed in civil registry offices; official registration is often followed by a church ceremony. Customs involving the visiting of the mothers of newly born infants are more common in the villages than in the cities. Many Lithuanians choose to be buried on their parents' land in their ancestral graveyards.

Picturesque dialectal speech can still be heard on the lips of older people, though the young, especially in Zemaitija, also use it. Village elders can still describe various beliefs, sorcery and legends about strange events. Up to this day, many of these people firmly believe in the veracity of this material.

Folk songs, dances and instrumental music have lost their former meaning and active role in everyday life. However, this portion of traditional culture has been excellently preserved; many people still remember songs, music and dances from their youth. For this reason, ethnographic expeditions to rural areas continue to be fruitful. It is not unusual for hundreds of songs and stories to be collected during one expedition. Sizable parts of singers' repertoires often consist of newer romance type songs. They are quite easy to differentiate from the older ones; sentimental lyrics suggestive of individual authorship and romantic melodies give them away. Such is the result of the interaction of city and village musical culture. Postwar partisan and exile songs also belong to this category. Of course these songs were never sung openly during the period of Soviet rule, but secretly they helped Lithuanians preserve their national pride and desire for freedom.

The Rebirth of Folklore in New Forms

While the older functions and forms of folklore disappear, an opposite current is building as more Lithuanians become aware of the value of their heritage. More and more, people try to find a place for traditional culture in their everyday lives. This "secondary folklore" is opening up a wide spectrum of new forms. As a result, the problem of reconciling folklore with the stage repeatedly arises.

The origins of stage performance of Lithuanian folklore date back to the end of the 19th century. At that time "Lithuanian Evenings", which functioned as unique theatrical protests against political oppression of Lithuania, began being held. Plays and concerts were staged in barns; their repertoires usually employed ethnographic material and the work of Lithuanian writers. This movement continued strongly until World War I.

The first folklore ensembles, which had already begun to manifest themselves in barn theaters and similar events, formed around the turn of the century. In 1906, P.Puskunigis founded the still functioning Skriaudziai kankles ensemble. Soon after, many kankles, skuduciai and ragai ensembles and kankles playing courses began appearing. One of the first significant ethnographic plays was called "The Kupiskenai Wedding". It was first presented in 1932, and has recently been successfully revived. All of the performers were local farmers. Similar wedding plays were held widely throughout Lithuania before World War II. Village school teachers and other enthusiasts in various parts of Dzukija held Senoves dienos ("Traditional Days") from 1935-38. These events included folk art exhibitions and performances by folk singers and musicians.

Theatrical pieces about peasant life as well as dances made the transition onto the stage without sacrificing much authenticity. However, this was not the case with concert song programs. As a result of the efforts of the distinguished Lithuanian philosopher Vydûnas and others, at the end of the 19th century, Lietuvininkai societies and choirs were founded in Eastern Prussia. Their concert programs included patriotic and folk songs. However, most of these reached the audience further harmonized following European standards and the examples of German choirs. It was thought that the traditional sound of folk songs no longer suited the needs and tastes of a well-educated public.

This choralization movement soon gained strength throughout the rest of Lithuania as well. Until the 1970's, the dominance of this style completely discouraged even the few attempts to present folk songs naturally on the stage.  Singing styles which had lost their associations with specific regions and had become "Pan-Lithuanian" made their way into villages as well.

Dainu Sventes (song festivals) began being held in 1924. These featured combined choirs composed of thousands of singers from throughout Lithuania. In the Soviet period, they were held every five years. These festivals and other related events and contests became the epicenter of this type of concert activity. A multitude of so-called folk song and dance ensembles, foremost among them the professional "Lietuva" ensemble established in 1940, populated these festivals.

Among harmonized Lithuanian folk songs appeared other "Soviet" peoples' folk songs and ideological works by Lithuanian and other composers. Dances completely lost their traditional character as did costumes which had already begun to be stylized before World War II. Modern Lithuanian folk music instruments were created. Song and dance ensembles as well as new village folk music bands that almost completely overwhelmed traditional bands employed these instruments.

Stylized folklore should not be evaluated one-sidedly. On one hand, it was long a part of official ideological culture, on the other, as early as the days of Vydûnas it served to rouse Lithuanian patriotism. During the Soviet years, until the birth of the folk ensemble movement, it was the only genre to openly exhibit the possibilities of folklore-type concert performance. Today, folk song and dance ensembles are searching for more authentic forms once again.

In the early 1960's, conditions were favorable for the birth of a folklore movement which would draw from Lithuanian traditions and roots. Interest in traditional culture arose as a quasi-politically acceptable patriotic movement and as an alternative to official culture. This phenomenon was stimulated by the development of a new generation of scholarly folklore works and expeditions organized by the Krastotyros draugija (Ethnographic Society). Young students living in cities, especially those of Vilnius University, were most active in these undertakings.

The foundation of a tourism club at Vilnius University gave impetus to the zygeiviai (hiking) movement most active from 1968-71 after the Prague Spring events. Hikers traveled throughout Lithuania tending to historical areas, visiting the sites of resistance battles and learning folk and patriotic songs. Within this movement arose the Lithuanian Ramuva Society which sought to reconstruct ancient pagan Baltic celebrations. In 1967, this organization was initiated with the first celebration of Rasa (summer solstice) on the castle mound at Kernave. Celebrating Rasa, Jore (the first greening), equinoxes and other ancient Baltic occasions, the crafting of archaeologically-based clothing and jewelry reconstruction became quite popular in folklore circles.

Members of these movements were followed and persecuted by the KGB following the Brezhnev Reaction, especially after R. Kalanta immolated himself in protest in 1972. Nevertheless, their members continued engaging in activities promoting folklore, and later these organizations were revived. Quite a few of their participants became eminent statesmen.

Town folklore ensembles began forming in the early 1970's. At first, there were only a handful, mostly based in several of Vilnius' educational and other institutions. Later, in the 1980's, they grew in number. Ensembles appeared in smaller towns and children's groups began forming in schools. The example of city ensembles as well as ethnographic expeditions, folk music gatherings, invitations to give concerts in cities and increased radio and television program time dedicated to folklore encouraged talented village performers to gather into ensembles. City and village ensembles now number several hundred, although many groups (especially those in villages) are only temporarily formed for specific occasions or concerts.

During this period, ensemble terminology was finally defined. Village groups that draw from continuous traditions and perform their own area's folklore are now called ethnographic ensembles. Groups that indirectly adopt or recreate traditions are called folklore ensembles. These are most often located in the cities. Village ethnographic ensembles usually consist of older singers, dancers and musicians who draw from their own local folklore and unbroken traditions. However, even these groups have felt the influence of "Pan-Lithuanian" song and dance ensembles. City folklore ensembles do not necessarily present material from one area, sometimes they cover all of Lithuania. They collect material through expeditions, archives and publications, and reconstruct already dead traditions such as sutartines. Their members sew the best traditional costumes within their means following researched material. Some of these groups do more than just give concerts, they also organize private activities such as the recreation of calendar cycle celebrations and weddings with traditional clothing and old rites. In general, the transfer of folklorism from the cities back to villages is one of the characteristic features of the Lithuanian folklore movement.

The Rumsiskes Skansen was founded on the scenic eastern shore of the inland Kaunas "sea" in 1966. A folklore theater which restores and reworks the traditions of barn theaters is operated in the museum. The seeing off of winter (analogous to Shrove Tuesday) and other events are organized at the museum drawing together many ensembles and spectators. In 1983, the first summer camp was held there; later such camps became popular in Kelme and in other parts of Lithuania. These are unique courses in which anyone can learn to sing, dance, celebrate or craft folk items.

In the early 1970's, local folklore reviews and contests began appearing. In 1980, the first republic-wide ethnographic and folklore ensemble contest called "Ant mariu krantelio" (On the Sea Shore) was held at Rumsiskes. Over 1000 participants gathered for this event. Other important festivals include "Skamba skamba kankliai", held in Vilnius' old town each year since 1975, and "Atataria trimitai" held in Kaunas. The International Folklore Festival "Baltica" was first organized in Vilnius in 1987. Since then, it has been held each year alternately in all three Baltic countries. Later, several other international festivals also appeared. Today Lithuania is a member of CIOFF, and maintains contacts with folklore organizations around the world. Lithuania's folklore movement is particularly strong, even more so than similar ones in neighboring countries.

Ethnic cultural events, political activities connected with ethnoculture and similar work in Lithuania is organized by state institutions such as the Folk Culture Center, regional cultural divisions, newly created regional ethnic culture centers as well as the Lithuanian Ethnic Culture Society and others. However, this activity is usually of a spontaneous nature, and a large part of it depends on the initiative of organizers and enthusiasts.

Researching Traditional Culture

Ancient Baltic and Lithuanian customs and folklore were already mentioned in the chronicles of the past millennium. A great deal of reliable ethnographic information collected by foreign researchers (M. Stryjkowski, A.Gvagnini, J.Lasicki and others) appeared during the 16th to 17th centuries. However, a Lithuanian folk melody was only first published in 1634. In the mid 18th century, Europe underwent an intellectual rebellion against classicism which stressed national values. During this period, German romanticists took an interest in Lithuanian songs.

Nevertheless, purposeful activity began only in the 19th century. It took the form of collection and publication of folklore, and in particular, of songs. This work was undertaken by German, Polish, Russian and Lithuanian researchers. The first collection of Lithuanian folk songs, compiled by L.Rhesa of Koenigsburg University in 1825 contained 85 items. On the other side of the Nemunas river, S.Stanevicius, S.Daukantas and other graduates of Vilnius University published song and story collections. During the period of suppression of the Lithuanian press, the most important works, the song books of J.Juska, were printed outside of Lithuania from 1880-1900. They were based on 5624 songs and descriptions drawn from material collected by the author's brother, Vicar A. Juska, in the Veliuona region.

Various research societies began organizing activities at the turn of the century. J. Basanavicius, head of the Lithuanian Science Society founded in Vilnius in 1907, published works containing songs, many tales and mythological legends. Other collectors and publishers of songs included Finnish folklorist A.R.Niemi, priests A.Sabaliauskas, T.Brazys and others. At the turn of the century, phonographic cylinders came into use recording material. Ethnographic periodicals as well as single works dealing with folk song melodies (J.Ciurlionyte, T.Brazys) appeared during the period of the independent Lithuanian state. The Folklore Commission, founded in Kaunas in 1930, and later the Lithuanian Folklore Archive, became the center of folkloristic studies. As a result of these institutions' efforts, a wide cross section of the public was drawn into the collection of folklore.

This activity continued in the postwar years. After 1962, with the introduction of composite expeditions and publication of collected material by the Ethnographic Society, work proceeded at a rapid rate. Scientific research and the printing of song collections and other ethnographic material today is concentrated in Vilnius University, the Academy of Music, the Institute of Lithuanian History and the Institute of Lithuanian Literature and Folklore. Distinguished researchers of ancient Lithuanian folklore and mythology from the postwar period to the present include N.Velius, B.Dunduliene, A.Vysniauskaite, J.Ciurlionyte, Z.Slaviunas and others. Lithuanian scholars living abroad, including M.Gimbutiene, A.J.Greimas and J.Balys have also contributed to this work.

INSTITUTIONS AND ORGANIZATIONS

Lithuanian Folk Culture Center
Ethnic Culture Department
B. Radvilaites 8
Vilnius
Tel. (8-22) 612540, 611190
Fax 224033

The Folk Culture Center researches ethnic culture, helps preserve
traditions and customs, produces scholarly and educational works and
records present-day Lithuanian folk culture through video film, audio,
photographs and written material. The center organizes a number of
folk festivals including international festivals "Baltica", "Daigelis"
(children's folklore) and "Griezyne" (instrumental folk music).

Lithuanian Ethnic Culture Society
B. Radvilaites 8
Vilnius
Tel. (8-22) 626088

Lithuanian Ethnographic Society
Traku 2
Vilnius
Tel. (8-22) 622476

This organization has chapters in cities and rural districts. It
organizes expeditions, exhibitions, conferences, ethnographic museums,
and produces continuous collections and other publications.

RESEARCH INSTITUTIONS AND ARCHIVES

Institute of Lithuanian Literature and Folklore
Folklore Department
Antakalnio 6
Vilnius
Tel. (8-22) 624849

The department collects and researches verbal and sung folklore. It
compiles catalogues and produces multiple volume song books. According
to 1992 figures, its archive includes about 1,300,000 individual
recordings.

Institute of Lithuanian History
Ethnography Department
T. Kosciuskos 30
Vilnius
Tel. (8-22) 629410

This department collects and researches customs
and aspects of material culture. In 1992, its archives included over
1500 reports from ethnographic expeditions.

Lithuanian Music Academy
Institute of Musicology, Section of Ethnomusicology
Skapo 4
Vilnius
Tel. (8-22) 613192

The department collects and researches Lithuanian folk music. In 1992,
its archive included about 70,000 records.

INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER LEARNING

Vilnius University
Archaeology and Ethnology Department
Universiteto 3
Vilnius
Tel. (8-22) 611313
Fax 223563

Lithuanian Music Academy
Ethnomusicology Department
Gedimino 42
Vilnius
Tel. (8-22) 612691
Fax 220093

Vytautas the Great University
Ethnology and Folkloristics Department
K.Donelaicio 5
Kaunas
Tel. (8-27) 220265
Fax 203858

Klaipeda University
Baltic Linguistics and Ethnology Department
Sportininku 13
Klaipeda
Tel. (8-261) 14810
Fax 01261, 56526

ETHNOCULTURAL CENTERS

Vytauto Didziojo 73
Kelme
Tel. (8-297) 53006

Vezeju 4
Klaipeda
Tel. (8-261) 13857

K. Petrausko 31
Kaunas
Tel. (8-27) 220096, 731184
Fax 706642
Telex 269850 PTB SU

A.Jaksto 9
Vilnius
Tel. (8-22) 627737, 222593

Vasario 16-osios 23
Panevezys
Tel. (8-254) 24763

Respublikos 96
Rokiskis
Tel. (8-278) 52482, 53065

Balsiai
Pakruojis District
Tel. (8-291) 48235

Ateities 11
Ignalina
Tel. (8-229) 52154

Gedimino 85
Kaisiadorys
Tel. (8-256) 54161

These centers further local traditions, organize calendar celebrations, expeditions, seminars, ethnocultural camps and folklore festivals. In other districts, ethnic culture departments have been forming in the education and culture divisions.

MUSEUMS

Museum of Lithuanian History and Ethnography
Arsenalo 1
Vilnius
Tel. (8-22) 627774, 629426

The museum boasts 270,000 archaeological, historical and ethnographic
artifacts which reflect Lithuania's history from the stone age to the
present day.

Outdoor Museum of Country Life (Skansen)
S. Neries 6
Rumsiskes
Kaisiadorys District
Tel. (8-256) 51589

This is an open-air museum where Lithuanian village, town and farm
structures from the mid 18th century to the early 20th are displayed.
Special care has been taken to show authentic interior and exterior
features. The exhibition spans 175 hectares and
includes 6 km of footpaths. The museum is divided according to the four
ethnic regions of Lithuania: Dzukija, Aukstaitija, Suvalkija, and
Zemaitija.

The A. Juska Memorial Museum
Kauno mazoji 2
Vilkija
Kaunas District
Tel. (8-27) 556400

Folk Music Instrument Museum
Zamenhofo 12
Kaunas
Tel. (8-27) 222646, 207636

Trakai Historical Museum
Kestucio 4
Trakai
Tel. (8-238) 53391

State Museum of Archaeology and History at Kernave
Kernave
Sirvintos District
Tel. (8-232) 45725, 45785

Historical Museum of Lithuania Minor
Didzioji vandens 6
Klaipeda
Tel. (8-261) 10600, 10860

The Ausra Historical and Ethnographic Museum at Siauliai
Vytauto 89
Siauliai
Tel. (8-214) 31939, 30900

The Zemaiciu Alka Museum
Muziejaus 31
Telsiai
Tel. (8-294) 53728, 53833

Stelmuze Folk Sculpture Museum
Stelmuze
Zarasai District
Tel. (8-270) 51126

MUSEUMS OF ETHNOGRAPHY

J. Radvilos 3
Birzai
Tel. (8-220) 50390

Prudo 13
Kelme

J. Basanavicaus 45
Kedainiai
Tel. (8-257) 53685

Vilniaus 2a
Kretinga
Tel. (8-258) 53101, 51490

Gedimino 2
Kupiskis
Tel. (8-231) 52139

Vytauto 31
Marijampole

Merkine
Varena District

Vasario 16-osios 23
Panevezys
Tel. (8-254) 62331

Plunges 13
Rietavas
Plunge District
Tel. (8-218) 52702, 58643

Muziejaus 46
Raseiniai
Tel. (8-228) 5189

Tyzenhauzu 5
Rokiskis
Tel. (8-278) 52261, 52835

Lietuvininku 36
Silute
Tel. (8-241) 51247

Tauragnai
Utena District
Tel. (8-239) 55393

D. Bukanto 20/1
Zarasai
Tel. (8-270) 52456

NATIONAL PARK ETHNIC CULTURE DEPARTMENTS

Aukstaitija National Park
Meironys
Ignalina District
Tel. (8-229) 45944

Dzukija National Park
Marcinkonys
Varena District
Tel. (8-260) 44736

Zemaitija National Park
Zemaiciu Kalvarijos 30
Plateliai
Plunge District
Tel. (8-218) 48337

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Compilation and Editing of Original Text and Translation:
Rytis Ambrazevicius

Chapters Prepared by: 
Rytis Ambrazevicius(1,2,4,6,9), Vida Belkyte(9), Birute Imbrasiene (4,6), Terese Jurkuviene (5), Arunas Lunys (2), Nijole Marcinkeviciene (3), Vytautas Musteikis (1), Ale Pociulpaite (8), Kazys Poskaitis (2), Giedre Puodziukaityte (7), Vida Satkauskiene (9), Jurate Semetaite (9), Juozas Sorys (9), Eugenija Venskauskaite (2).

Translation into English and Computer Text Composition: Laima Gaigalas

Illustrations: Laisve Asmonaitiene (costumes, chapter 5), Sergijus Luzinas

Graphic design: Sergijus Luzinas

Layout: Ramune Januseviciute

Special thanks to: Elena Bradunaite-Aglinskiene and Ruta Konciute-Salikliene

(C) Lietuvos liaudies kulturos centras. SL420
(C) Lithuanian Folk Culture Center